Felicity Aston

Conflict in the Chaco

Tranquilino Florencio sits in a shady corner of the Casa de Ex-Combatientes, a home for ex-servicemen, in the Paraguayan capital, Asuncion. The 89-year-old is a veteran of the bloodiest South American conflict of the 20th century. ‘They died second by second,’ he says. ’Not many survived.’ At the age of 17, Florencio was conscripted into the Paraguayan army and fought for one of the continent's last great frontiers - the Chaco.

Road through the Chaco Roughly the size of Poland, the Chaco is a flat, semi-arid expanse of almost impenetrable thorn forest that sprawls across southeastern Bolivia, northern Argentina and northwestern Paraguay. During the 16th Century, Spanish Conquistadors attempted to penetrate this unwelcoming wilderness but the vegetation, harsh climate, lack of water and violently aggressive indigenous tribes defeated them and the Chaco was largely ignored. Then, in 1932, the world looked on incredulously as Paraguay and Bolivia clashed violently over ownership of this apparently worthless wasteland. Bolivia, which had lost its coastline to Chile in the Pacific War of 1884, wanted access to the Atlantic via the River Paraguay; Paraguay, still raw from defeat in previous wars, was determined not to lose any more territory.

The Paraguayans entered the war chronically short of funds and equipment. They were forced to face the well-equipped Bolivian army with machetes and one rifle between up to seven men. ‘We picked up the rifles of the dead,’ says Florencio. However, the Paraguayans knew the land better and the outcome of battles was often determined by how quickly trails could be cut and roads built through the thorn-forest of the Chaco. The Bolivian army faltered and outran its water supply. Driven mad by thirst, its soldiers surrendered en masse or simply wandered off into the forest. More men died from disease and infection in the unforgiving conditions than from bullet wounds. By the time a truce was Graveyard in the Chaco called three years later, the conflict had claimed more than 100,000 lives. Victorious Paraguay was awarded most of the disputed Chaco, but for Paraguayans, the war had been about national pride rather than the land itself. Soldiers returned home to the populous Eastern half of the country with terrible stories of a wilderness full of death and disease. The hard-won Chaco was gladly left to the indigenous and the dead.

Today, the Chaco represents 60 per cent of modern Paraguay but supports less than 3 per cent of the population. However, almost 75 years after the end of the Chaco War, the region is finally showing signs of development. Remote settlements have become lucrative farming communities, land prices are attracting foreign investment and international aid is being made available to boost tourism in the region. Although the development promises to bring prosperity to the struggling Paraguayan economy, not everyone is happy.

Trans-Chaco sign There is only one route into the Chaco: the Trans-Chaco Highway, which stretches more than 900km northwest from Asuncion to the Bolivian border. The road is so straight and flat that roadside rubble can be seen for kilometres and oncoming cars are distorted by mirages on the horizon. Leaving the verdant vegetation of eastern Paraguay it enters the scorched brown scrubland of the Chaco. Bushes sprout dagger-like thorns, bristling cacti replace grasses and the trees are covered in rows of razor-edged spikes. The settlement of Filadelfia sits back from the highway, 480km from Asuncion. The quietly prosperous town is the administrative centre of Fernheim, one of three Mennonite colonies clustered together in the otherwise uninhabited Chaco. The German-speaking Mennonites (See box below) first arrived in Paraguay in 1927, fleeing persecution in Europe. They bought 56,000 hectares of land and negotiated a deal with the Paraguayan government called the Privilegium. Mennonites believe that God's word - the bible - is the only authority and show no loyalty to a political state. Under the terms of the Privilegium, the settlers would take responsibility for their own schools and law enforcement, in return gaining religious liberty, exemption from military service and freedom from state taxes.

When the first wave of Mennonite settlers arrived in the Chaco they were bitterly disappointed. The hard clay soil made agriculture difficult, there was no surface water and no stone for building; just dust and thorns. Those that stayed labelled it the ‘green hell’ but there was worse to come. Just five years after their arrival, the Chaco War erupted and the Mennonites found themselves in the middle of a conflict zone. They were seen as neutral by both sides but were obliged to provide the Paraguayan Army with water, transport and food. In turn, the military became a valuable market for Mennonite produce. More importantly, the Paraguayan government built a network of roads to allow military access to the Chaco. After the war, much of this infrastructure fell into disrepair but the Mennonites maintained the roads that linked their colonies and provided access to the outside world. Raulande Epp and his parents were born in the colonies. His Grandparents arrived in Paraguay after fleeing the Soviet Union. ‘It was hard work in the beginning,’ he says. ’My parents were very poor and many settlers died young from the exertion. Wells had to be dug at least six metres deep. My Grandfather died when a well he was digging collapsed on top of him. He was only 40 years old.’

Original colony house Working as a co-operative, the colonies initially grew peanuts and cotton, but dairy production became their strength. The establishment of the Trans-Chaco highway in 1964 - at that time just a rough dirt track - provided the settlers with a way to distribute their produce to the rest of Paraguay. As the Highway was improved, the Mennonites’ business grew, and today the colonies supply more than a third of Paraguay’s dairy products. Epp’s parents now own a large cattle ranch and are comfortably wealthy - a story repeated again and again in the territories. Filadelfia itself has grown from a small settlement into a large modern town. The colonies still provide their own schools, hospital, mail system, social security and public order enforcement but enjoy a far higher standard of living than many other communities in eastern Paraguay. This is partly due to the fact that the isolation of the Chaco has protected the Mennonites from the economic disasters that have beleaguered the rest of the country. Since 1989, when Paraguay emerged from a repressive 35-year dictatorship under General Alfred Stroessner, the country has suffered from government corruption and high unemployment. As a result, many Paraguayans see the stable economy of the colonies as an opportunity and the Trans-Chaco Highway, which once bought success to the Mennonites is now bringing waves of immigrants.

‘When I was growing up, there was only one Paraguayan family in town and everyone spoke German,’ says Gundolf Niebuhr, who runs the museum in Filadelfia. ‘Now it is the Mennonites that are in the minority and only 40 per cent are German speaking.’ Immigration has put pressure on the colonies; 27,000 indigenous people and 5,000 Paraguayans have become reliant on a community of just 14,000 Mennonites. ‘It’s a time of drought at the moment, which is exacerbating the problem,’ explains Niebuhr. ‘There just isn’t enough work for everyone.’ As pressure grows on the Mennonites to share their prosperity many fear that the Paraguayan Government will withdraw the Privilegium that was negotiated nearly 80 years ago. Settlers are scared to reinvest in the colonies and some have decided to leave. ‘The more conservative Mennonites moved as soon as their ideals began to be compromised,’ says Niebuhr. ‘Some have joined other Mennonite communities in Canada and Mexico. Others are determined to stay because they have a strong attachment to the place where they were born; some just don’t have the option to leave.’ The Mennonites feel strongly that their economic development has only been possible due to the co-operative and ethical values encouraged by their faith. Many think that the Paraguayans, who they believe have a historical tendency towards corruption, wouldn't be able to maintain the colonies' productivity. Those that stay, such as Epp, are angry, ‘The Paraguayans don’t understand democracy,’ he claims. ‘They look at people who have something and they are jealous, so they want to take it.’

National Park Ranger It’s not just the Mennonites that are under pressure but the land itself. Every year 50,000 hectares of the Chaco are cleared to make way for cattle. Previously unwanted wilderness is now desirable real estate and Mennonites, Paraguayans and cattle ranchers from across the border in Brazil are all buying it up. The Defensores Del Chaco National Park is the largest protected area in Paraguay. Located 350km north of Filadelfia, a single dust track forms a perimeter around an area of 7,800 square kilometres. This pristine wilderness is home to more than 250 bird species and 53 species of mammal, including Puma and the last of Paraguay’s Jaguars. In 1998, the park was recognised as ‘a genetic conservation bank of great importance’ and designated a natural carbon sink to mitigate the effects of Climate Change. Funding soon flowed in from the United States Agency for International Development and an international conservation charity (followed by criminal charges against the Paraguayan Forest Service after a large chunk of the money vanished). The long-awaited international money funded two new ranger stations, 4 new park rangers and modern visitor accommodation with research facilities. ‘Internationally, the conservation of the Chaco is considered a priority,’ says Gonzalez, who has been Chief Warden of the Park for 26 years.‘But in Paraguay, it has been neglected.' No vegetation within the park has been cleared but the lands along its perimeter is for sale at US$5 (£2.85) per hectare. Brazilian ranchers have been quick to invest, clearing the land for cattle. Gonzalez worries that the clearing will be disastrous for the Park and its wildlife, particularly the big cats that roam over a wide area regardless of park boundaries. ‘Brazilian ranchers violate our environmental laws,’ he claims. ‘But we have no money to stop it.’

Modern farm house on the colony The Mennonites too, are quick to point the finger at Brazilian investors. Hurst Neulfeld is a Mennonite landowner with a ranch outside Filadelfia. He is considering buying some of the land that surrounds the Park. ‘The Brazilians exploit the land,’ he says. ‘All they want is money. They do not care about the Chaco or about the future of Paraguay. I only want the water for my animals. I will not clear the land.’ Epp takes a different view. ’The Brazilians work very hard here,’ he says. ‘In their country the economy is good because they work hard. Here, the Paraguayans rob them.’

A short drive from Filadelfia, the sight of one of the most vicious battles of the Chaco War is marked by a small patch of sun-baked earth surrounded by a white picket fence. Bleached wooden crosses sit in haphazard rows in memory of the men that lost their lives in this thorn-strewn desert. ‘The souls of soldiers lost in the forest still roam the Chaco,’ Florencio tells me. ‘They are still trying to get home.’ In the past, the Chaco has been a place of conflict and it seems that even today, it's still fighting to establish a future for itself.

 

The Mennonites - A Worldwide Community of Faith.

The Mennonites are named after Menno Simons, a Catholic priest from the Netherlands who joined the Anabaptist movement in 1536. He didn’t found the movement but became an important leader, whose writings gave it direction. Mennonites believe that the Bible, as God’s word, is the only valid authority. As such they reject the idea of loyalty to a political state and the intervention of a church hierarchy. They are committed pacifists and believe in voluntary membership of the church. These beliefs caused them to be persecuted during the late 16th century and they fled, first to Prussia, then the Ukraine. There are now Mennonite communities scattered throughout the world. Some communities are more conservative than others (the Amish Mennonites of North America strongly reject the modern world as incompatible with their religious life) but all Mennonites traditionally seek isolation and are very family orientated. Mennonites consider themselves to be part of ‘a worldwide, multicultural community of faith’ but in Paraguay they are often considered to be an ethnic group or nationality of their own. This has caused resentment in the past and continues to be a source of friction in the Chaco.



(This article was first published in Geographical Vol. 78 No. 6 in June 2006)

A semi-arid expanse of dense thorn scrubland the size of Poland, the Chaco region of Paraguay, Bolivia and Argentina isn't exactly what you would call prime real estate. Yet more than 100,000 people lost their lives when Paraguay and Bolivia went to war over it. And now, as Felicity Aston discovers, a new dispute is brewing.